Korean Artist

Given the worldwide interest in sports and the extensive media coverage given them, many people may be familiar with Korean golf sensation Park Seri and Los Angeles Dodgers' ace pitcher Park Chanho. However, it is in the field of music and the arts that Koreans have contributed the most to world culture.
Violinist Sarah Chang is recognized the world over as one of classical music's most captivating and gifted artists. She first astounded the music world by appearing as a surprise guest performer with the New York Philharmonic Orchestra under the baton of Zubin Mehta. She was eight years old at the time and had just played for Mehta two days earlier when he was so impressed that he immediately asked her to do the performance.
Since that eventful debut she has performed in the music capitals of Asia, Europe and the Americas and collaborated with nearly every major orchestra and with many of the world's most esteemed conductors. She has reached an even wider audience through her many television appearances, including several concert broadcasts, and her best-selling recordings.
Her first album, Debut, was recorded when she was nine, using a quarter-sized violin. Released in September 1992 to exceptional acclaim, it quickly reached the Billboard's chart of classical bestsellers. She has since released a handful of recordings, the most recent in March 1998. In recognition of her recordings, she was awarded a special 1993 Gramophone award as "Young Artist of the Year." In 1993, she received the German "Echo" Schallplattenpreis and the Royal Philharmonic Society of Music's "Debut" award and in 1994, the "Newcomer of the Year" prize at the International Classical Music Awards. Prior to those honors, she was presented the Nanp'a award, Korea's highest honor for a musician, in May 1991, and in May 1992, she became the youngest person to ever be awarded the Avery Fisher Career grant.
Another outstanding Korean violinist who has long wowed music lovers around the world is Chung Kyungwha. For more than 25 years, she has been one of the most sought-after musicians on the international stage, earning recognition as a performing artist of the very highest stature. The Sunday Times of London, the city where she resides with her family, has called her one of the most important contributors to the British cultural scene.
She left Korea at the age of 12 to study at the Juilliard School of Music in New York. After winning the Leventritt competition in 1967, she embarked upon her performing career in North America, appearing with many of the finest orchestras. She made her European debut in 1970 at the Royal Festival Hall playing Tchaikovsky with Andre Previn and the London Symphony Orchestra. Her performance was so outstanding that they immediately booked her for three more London concerts, a tour of Japan and a television appearance. Engagements with the London Philharmonic, Berlin Philharmonic and Cleveland Orchestra followed and from then on her international career soared.
Since that time she has appeared in recitals with virtually all of the major orchestras and conductors throughout North America, Europe, and Asia. Although she now restricts her performances to no more than 60 a year in order to devote more time to her family, she used to perform nearly 120 concerts each season. She has made numerous recordings and has earned a number of awards including a coveted Gramophone Award.
Chamber music plays a very important part in Chung's performing life as she often performs and records with her brother Chung Myungwhun, a pianist and conductor, and her sister Chung Myungwha, a world-renowned cellist. The Chung Trio, as the three are called, has been honored with the title Honorary Ambassador of the United Nations Drug Control Program.
Cellist Chung Myungwha graduated from Julliard and won first place in the cello division at the Geneva International Competition in 1971. She has since performed with the London Royal Philharmonic, the Berlin Radio Symphony and many other orchestras.
The Principal Conductor of the Orchestra of the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia and Music Director of the Asia Philharmonic Orchestra, Chung Myungwhun began his musical studies as a pianist and made his debut with the Seoul Philharmonic at the age of seven. He studied piano and conducting at the Mannes School of Music in New York. After winning second prize at the 1974 Tchaikovsky Competition in Moscow for piano, he went on to complete his conducting studies at Juilliard. In 1978, he became an assistant to the conductor of the Los Angeles Philharmonic and in 1980, he was named an associate conductor. His career began to soar with his appointment in 1984 to Music Director and Principal Conductor of the Saarbr ken Radio Symphony Orchestra, which he held until 1990.
He has conducted many prominent European orchestras, including the Berlin Philharmonic, Vienna Philharmonic, Munich Philharmonic, Orchestre National de France, Orchestre de Paris, La Scala Orchestra and Concertgebouw. In North America he has made guest appearances with the New York Philharmonic, Philadelphia Orchestra, Chicago Symphony, Cleveland Orchestra and Boston Symphony. He toured Asia in 1995 with the Philharmonia Orchestra and in 1996 with the London Symphony Orchestra.
For the last dozen or so years, he has devoted his attention to opera. He made his opera debut at the Metropolitan Opera in 1986 and from 1987 to 1992 he was the Principal Guest Conductor of the Teatro Comunale in Florence, during which time he was awarded the Premio Abbiati by Italian critics in 1989 and the following year was awarded the Arturo Toscanini prize. He was the Music Director of the Opera de Paris-Bastille from 1989 to 1994 and for his outstanding work he was named "Artist of the Year" by the Association of French Theatre and Music Critics in 1991, and the French government awarded him the Legion d'Honneur in 1992 for his contribution to French opera.
In 1995, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) named him its "Man of the Year." In 1996, he received the highest cultural award of the Korean government for his contributions to Korean music. Chung now serves as Honorary Cultural Ambassador for Korea, the first in the Korean government's history.
Soprano Jo Sumi was discovered by the world-famous conductor Herbert von Karajan, who praised her as having a "god-given voice." Since her debut on the Italian stage in 1986, singing Gilda in Verdi's "Rigoletto" with Karajan directing, she has performed around the world and in all the major opera houses. She has made many outstanding recordings and in 1993 Italian critics named her "Best Soprano of the Year." A highly versatile singer, she has a vast repertoire of over 30 operas.
Jo went to Rome in 1983 to study voice at the Accademia di Santa Cecilia. In 1985, after finishing her five-year course in just two years, she won the top prize in four singing competitions in Italy.
The late modern classical composer Yun Isang (1917-1995) had an influence that went far beyond Korea's borders. In fact, many credit Yun with having put Korea on the world's musical map with operas and symphonies combining his inspirations from Oriental traditions with techniques of Western music. Although he spent most of his life outside Korea, his oeuvre is characterized by the lively, flexible tone of Korea's traditional music. By integrating the principles of European New Music into his Korean-inspired "main tone technique," he blended Eastern and Western attributes to create a composition style reflecting the Taoist eum(yin)-yang concept. He composed over 150 musical works including symphonies and operas, many of them inspired by political developments in Korea.
The son of a poet, Yun began to write music at the age of 14. After studying Western music in Korea, he studied voice, theory, harmony and composition in Japan from 1935 to 1943 when he returned to Korea to teach. In 1955, he won the Seoul City Award which enabled him to travel to Europe for further study. He studied in Paris from 1956 to 1957 and in Berlin from 1958 to 1959. He eventually settled in Germany and taught music composition at Berlin Hochschule fur Musik from 1970 until his retirement in 1985. In 1987, the then West German government awarded him its highest state medal, and to celebrate his 75th birthday in 1992, concerts featuring his music were held in several cities in Germany as well as in Switzerland, the Netherlands, Japan and North Korea.

Another composer, and one which Koreans hold very dear, is Ahn Eaktay (1905-1965) who wrote the music for Korea 's national anthem, "Aegukga." However, he is probably better known outside Korea for his Korea Fantasia, a long epic piece depicting the glorious feats and ordeals Korea experienced throughout its 5,000-year history that was first performed by the Irish National Symphony in 1938.

Ahn first studied music in Japan , majoring in cello. In 1930, he went to the United States for further study, first in Philadelphia and later in Cincinnati where he also played first chair cello with the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra. He entered the Franz Liszt Academy of Music in Budapest in 1936. In 1937, he went to Vienna to study under Richard Strauss and that same year he took up the baton as the permanent conductor of the Mallorca Orchestra in Madrid . Thereafter, he served as guest conductor for more than 200 orchestras around the world.

In the field of Korean traditional music, perhaps no individual or group has been more in the international spotlight than Kim Duksoo and his percussion quartet Samulnori. Playing four Korean traditional percussion instruments - an janggu or janggo (hourglass drum), buk (barrel drum), jing (large gong) and kkwaenggwari (small gong) - the quartet combines traditional rhythmic constructs derived from the wandering bands of old with shamanistic ceremonies and modern compositions to create a unique musical experience that is both ancient and contemporary, energizing and mesmerizing, vigorous and athletic.

Founded in 1978, the quartet opened a new era in Korean traditional music and its staging and spawned a new genre of music that has come to be called Samulnori. Samulnori gave its first overseas performance in 1982 and since that time it has performed in concert on all the major continents. In addition, the quartet has performed and recorded with folk bands and percussion groups of various countries as well as with orchestras, classical and jazz ensembles, and big name jazz artists such as Pushkin, Steve Gadd and Nexus.

Surprisingly, Paik Namjune, the Korean-born artist known the world over as the "father of video art," began his career as a musician and composer studying at the University of Tokyo , the University of Munich , and the Conservatory of Music in Freiburg , Germany . Influenced by the composer John Cage, Paik's interests brought him into contact with an international movement of artists who sought to break down the barriers between high art and everyday life. He began combining music and art, and was attracted to video by the random quality of the television soundtrack. In 1963, he became the first person to exhibit "prepared" television sets. Since that time Paik has influenced contemporary art, video and television with works linking the worlds of art, media, technology, pop culture and the avant garde. A provocative and prophetic spokesman for new uses of television technology and for the relevance of TV to art, Paik has used television sets in startling constructions such as a cello, a bra, and eye-glasses and has designed installations composed of televisions transformed into aquariums and stacked as pyramids. He has made TV chairs and many versions of TV robots. Many of his works combine fast-paced video clips in montages programmed over a number of television monitors.

Paik's art can be found in museums and private collections around the world. In 1982, the Whitney Museum of American Art honored him with a comprehensive retrospective of videotapes, video sculptures, installations and performances. In 1993, he won the grand prize at the Venice Biennale and that same year the German monthly Kapitol named him one of the world's greatest artists. The U.S. cable network Discovery recently featured him and his works in a documentary.

Although he is not a musician, it is through the medium of the musical that best-selling writer Yi Munyol has most recently come into the international spotlight. The Last Empress, a Broadway-style musical based on his 1994 best-selling novel The Fox Hunt, opened to rave reviews at the New York State Theater of the Lincoln Center in August 1997 and has since been touring North America . Many of Yi's works have been translated into other languages and have drawn critical attention abroad.

Another writer who has attracted considerable attention in international literary circles is poet So Chongju. Translations of his poems have been published in the United States , Germany , France and Spain .

These people are just a handful of the many brilliant individuals who have contributed significantly to putting Korea on the world's cultural map as well as enhancing the nation's image in the global community. Their remarkable creativity, highly refined artistry and distinguished performances are a source of pride for all Koreans

Musical Instrument

There are approximately sixty traditional Korean musical instruments that have been handed down through the generations, each boasting of a long and rich history. They include the gayageum (12-string zither) and the geomungo (six-string zither), both presumed to have originated before the sixth century; the three string and three bamboo instruments of the Unified Silla Kingdom; court instruments of the Joseon Dynasty; and numerous others that are still being played.
Native or folk instruments played a major role in the development of music in Korea from early civilizations to the Unified Silla Kingdom (668-935). The Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C.-A.D. 668) witnessed the first introduction of Central Asian instruments into the country. This, along with the subsequent import of Chinese instruments, most importantly from Tang China during the late Unified Silla period and from Song China during the Goryeo period (918-1392), sparked a significant rise in the number of available instruments. This, in turn, made it possible for musicians to experiment, thereby expanding the scope and depth of local music. With time, Chinese instruments imported during these periods were slowly integrated into local music, and by the time the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) was established, they had already become an integral part of Korean music. Traditional Korean instruments can be broadly divided into three groups: string, wind, and percussion instruments. Based on their function, they can further be divided into native (Hyang), Tang (of Chinese origin), and court ceremonial instruments.

STRING INSTRUMENTS

1. Native Instruments

Gayageum (12-string zither): The gayageum is the most representative instrument of Korea . Its origin can be traced back to the Kingdom of Gaya in the sixth century, when the Silla Kingdom was ruled by King Jinheung. However, the actual production of the first gayageum is presumed to have been much earlier. The instrument is constructed with 12 strings supported by 12 moveable bridges. The gayageum can be divided into two groups according to the types of music played upon them. The sanjo gayageum is used in folk and improvisatory musical pieces such as sanjo (solo music with drum accompaniment) and sinawi (improvi-sational ensemble music). The jeongak gayageum is used in chamber music such as Yeongsan-hoesang (mass at the sacred mountain) or to accompany lyric songs.

Geomungo (six-string zither): Along with the gayageum, the geomungo is one of the most important Korean instruments. Instruments that appear to be early, primitive forms of the geomungo have been discovered inside ancient Goguryeo tombs in various locations. The geomungo that is used today is constructed with six strings and 16 frets, and is played with a plectrum. It is used to accompany lyric songs as well as in chamber music and sanjo (solo music with drum accompaniment).

2. Tang Instruments (Instruments of Chinese origin)

Haegeum (two-string fiddle): Although it was first imported from China , the haegeum has since been fully absorbed into the local culture. Today it is popularly used in various genres of Korean music. The instrument is played by inserting a resined bow between the two strings and rubbing it against the strings. It is currently used in jeongak (chamber music) and sanjo (solo music with drum accompaniment). In particular, the haegeum is an indispensable part of samhyeon yukkak, the ensemble consisting of string and wind instruments that are used to accompany dance.


Ajaeng (seven-string bowed zither) : The three types of ajaeng are the jeongak ajaeng, the sanjo ajaeng, and the daejaeng. The jeongak ajaeng is constructed with seven strings and is used in Tang music such as Nagyangchun (Spring in Loyang ) and Boheoja (Walking in the Void) as well as in native music such as Yeomillak (Enjoyment with the People) and Jeongeup (A song of Jeongeup city). The sanjo ajaeng has eight strings and is used exclusively in folk music such as sanjo and sinawi. The daejaeng is a large ajaeng with fifteen strings. While once widely used to play Chinese music during the Goryeo and Joseon Dynasty, the daejaeng is no longer in use.

3. Court Ceremonial Instruments

Geum (seven-stringed zither): The Geum has seven strings and a base with thirteen marks inlaid with mother-of-pearl, which mark the place where to press down on the string. Used exclusively in court music ensembles during the Joseon Dynasty, the instrument is no longer used.

Seul (twenty-five string zither): This instrument has twenty five strings with 25 bridges. Along with the geum, the seul was used exclusively in court music ensembles and like the former is no longer played.

4. Other Instruments

Yanggeum (dulcimer): A European instrument that was imported from China during the 18th century, the yanggeum> has 14 quadruple brass strings stretched over and under two brass bridges. The instrument is played by tapping the strings with a small bamboo stick.

WIND INSTRUMENTS

1. Native Instruments

Daegeum (large transverse flute): The daegeum is one of three bamboo wind instruments of the Unified Silla period. The type used during that period was the jeongak daegeum. Another type currently used is the sanjo daegeum. The jeongak daegeum has 13 holes and is typically used for chamber music and song accompaniment. While similar to the jeongak daegeum in overall construction, the sanjo daegeum is slightly smaller in size and shorter in length. The two types of daegeum differ in their application as well: sanjo daegeum is used in sanjo (solo music with drum accompaniment) and sinawi (improvisational ensemble music) or to accompany folk songs and dance. The two types show a variation in pitch of a minor third when played with three holes.

Sogeum (small flute): The sogeum is one of the three bamboo instruments along with the daegeum (large flute) and the junggeum (medium-sized flute). While popularly used until the Joseon Dynasty, there are no remaining relics or prototypes to verify the exact shape of the instrument. A model of the sogeum was reconstructed based on existing documents, and this is the type that is currently being used.

Hyangpiri (Korean cylindrical oboe) : The hyangpiri has seven finger holes and is used to perform jeongak such as Yeongsanhoesang and Jeongeup, and folk music including sanjo (solo music with percussion accompaniment) and wind orchestration.

Chojeok (grass flute) : Made from blades of grass, the chojeok was widely popular among the common folk of Korea .

2. Tang Instruments (instruments of Chinese origin)

Dangpiri (Chinese oboe) : Shorter than hyangpiri but with a thicker cylinder, the current version of dangpiri has eight holes and is typically used to perform Chinese music.

Tungso (vertical flute): The two types of tungso are the jeongak tungso and the folk tungso. The jeongak tungso has nine holes and while widely popular until the Joseon Dynasty, it is no longer used. The folk tungso has five holes in all, one in the back, and four in the front. One has a reed membrane. The instrument is used in sinawi (improvisational ensemble music), sanjo (solo music with drum accompaniment) and the Bukcheong lion dance.

Taepyeongso (conical oboe): The taepyeongso was imported from China in the late fourteenth century during the late Goryeo or early Joseon Dynasty. With eight finger holes, the instrument is played by inserting a reed in the blowhole. It is most widely used in nongak (farmers music).

3. Court Ceremonial Instruments

Saeng (mouth organ), U (large mouth organ), and Hwa (small mouth organ): The three mouth organs are similar in construction and only differ in the number of pipes. The saeng has 17 pipes, the hwa has 13, and the u, the largest, has 36. The only one still in use is the saeng used to perform both Chinese and native music.

So (panpipes): The three types are the 12-pipe, the 16-pipe, and the 24-pipe. The only one still being used in Korea is the 16-piped version, exclusively in court ceremonial music.

Hun (globular flute): The hun is created from baked clay and has five holes in all. It is used exclusively in Munmyo Jeryeak (ritual music performed at Confucian shrines).

Ji (flute with mouthpiece): The Ji has five finger holes in all, one in the back and four in front. The intervals between the holes are irregular. The instrument is used exclusively in court ceremonial music.

Yak (small-notched flute): Played vertically, the yak has three finger holes and is used in court music.

Jeok (flute): Played vertically, the jeok has one blowhole and six finger holes and is used in court ceremonial music.

4. Other Instruments

Danso (vertical flute): First played during the late Joseon Dynasty, the danso has five finger holes. It is used in chamber music such as Yeongsanhoesang and also for solo perfomances.

Sepiri (slender cylind-rical oboe): The sepiri is a slenderized version of the hyangpiri and has less volume. The instrument is used in orchestral music where the string section provides the core performance. It is also used in chamber ensemble music such as Yeongsanhoesang and in lyric songs, gasa (vernacular narrative verse), and sijo (short lyric songs).

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

1. Native Instruments

Jing (large gong): Made from brass and played with a mallet wrapped in cloth, the jing was originally used in military music. Currently, it is widely used in a variety of music including chwita (band music for royal processions), nongak, musok music (shaman ritual music), and Buddhist music.

Kkwaenggwari (small gong or hand gong): Similar to the jing in its form and construction, the kkwaenggwari is smaller in size. Unlike the jing, it is played with a small unwrapped mallet and therefore creates a much sharper and high-pitched sound. The instrument is used in nongak and musok music (shaman ritual music).

Pungmulbuk (folk drum): This is mostly used in nongak and unlike the janggo or janggu, (hourglass drum), the materials used on both drumheads are identical. The instrument is played by striking the drumheads with a stick made from hard wood.

Soribuk (vocal accompaniment drum): A modified version of the pungmulbuk, the soribuk is similar to the former in its shape and construction. However, the two differ in that the soribuk has tiny metal tacks embedded around the rim of both drumheads. It is mostly used to accompany pansori (dramatic narrative singing).

Pungmul Janggo (folk hourglass drum): The pungmul janggo has a wooden body with two drumheads made of hide. The instrument is played by striking the drum-heads with two sticks, one in each hand. It is mostly used in nongak and also as accompaniment to folk songs and japga (folk ballads).

2.Tang Instruments (instruments of Chinese origin)

Bak (clapper): The bak is constructed of six wooden slats which are spread apart and then struck together, creating a clapping sound. The instrument was used to perform Chinese music during the Goryeo Dynasty, in court ceremonial music during the early Joseon Dynasty, and then in native music during the mid-Joseon Dynasty. It is used today for Munmyo Jeryeak (ritual music performed at Confucian shrines) and court orchestral music and dance accompaniment.

Janggo or janggu (hourglass drum): According to existing documents, the jeongak janggo has been used since the Goryeo Dynasty. It has a wooden body and is widely used in both Chinese and native music.

3. Court Instruments

Pyeonjong (bronze bells) and Teukjong (single bronze bell): The pyeonjong is constructed of two rows with eight bells in each row. All the bells are identical in size and only differ in their thickness. The bells are played by striking them with a horn-tipped mallet held in the right hand. The instrument was first imported from Song China during the Goryeo Dynasty. The first domestic production of the pyeonjong was under King Sejong during the Joseon Dynasty. Today, it is used in both native and Chinese court music. The teukjong has a single bronze bell and is used exclusively in court ceremonial music.

Pyeongyeong (stone chimes) and Teukgyeong (single stone chime): The Pyeongyeong is constructed of two rows with eight L-shaped stones in each row. Imported from China as a court instrument with the Pyeongyeong during the Goryeo Dynasty, the Pyeongyeong was first produced domestically under King Sejong during the Joseon Dynasty. Its uses are identical to the pyeonjong. The teukgyeong is a single L-shaped stone and is used exclusively in court ceremonial music.

Chuk (percussion instrument with a square wooden box and mallet): The chuk is one of the instruments used to signal the beginning of a performance. Imported from Song China during the Goryeo Dynasty, it is today used exclusively in ritual music performed at the Confucian and Royal Ancestor Shrine ceremonies.

Eo (tiger-shaped wooden instrument): The eo is a tiger-shaped wooden instrument with 27 saw-toothed ridges on its back. The instrument is played by scraping the ridges with a bamboo stick. It is used to signal the end of a performance and is currently used in ritual music performed at Confucian shrines.

Paper Crafts

Koreans have a centuries-old history of paper-making and have long enjoyed using high-quality indigenous paper.

Korea 's oldest paper, called maji, was made from hemp. Maji is produced using roughly the following process:

Scraps of hemp or ramie cloth are soaked in water for some time and then shredded into tiny pieces. These pieces are ground in a grindstone to produce a slimy pulp, which then is steamed, cleansed with water, ground and placed in a tank. This raw material is pressed onto a frame and sun-dried while being bleached. This method of papermaking was most popular during the Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C.-A.D. 668).

In Baekje (18 B.C.-A.D. 660), one of the Three Kingdoms, paper thus made served as a chief medium for documenting historical events in the second half of the fourth century. Notably, Damjing, a Korean Buddhist monk and painter of Goguryeo (37 B.C-A.D. 668), another of the Three Kingdoms, introduced techniques of papermaking to Japan in 610, the 21st year of Goguryeo's King Yeongyang. From all this, it is obvious that Korea had already developed an advanced method of papermaking by the early part of the seventh century.
In the Goryeo era (918-1392), Koreans began to make paper from mulberry bark, or dangnamu, which made it possible to produce paper in large quantities, and in the 11th century, Korea began exporting paper to China. Between the 23rd year (1145) of King Injong's reign and the 18th year (1188) of King Myeongjong's reign, mulberries were grown all over the Korean Peninsula as the private paper manufacturing industry became a thriving business. The Government encouraged papermaking by setting up a jiso, an administrative agency designed exclusively to promote the production of mulberry paper. Eventually, Goryeo succeeded in producing fairly thick and sturdy paper whose obverse and reverse sides are both quite smooth and glossy. In later years, Korea's papermaking techniques further advanced, leading to the production of hanji, a traditional Korean paper.

Along with the indigenous and ingenious development of papermaking, Korea has established a deep-rooted tradition in the versatile use of paper. Among numerous traditional items of papercraft were such household goods as wardrobes, cabinets, chests, boxes, calligraphy desks, writing-brush holders, candlestands, room curtains, mats, cushions, comb holders and comb cabinets, trays, bowls with lids, basins, jars and food coverings. Other popular papercrafts included tobacco pouches, spectacle cases, dippers, quivers, soldiers' armor, fans, umbrellas, apparel, footwear and hats, as well as artificial flowers, lanterns, and kites.
It is hard to tell exactly when Koreans began to produce this plethora of items from paper, many of them for household use. However, historical documents indicate that the popular use of paper items dates as far back as the Three Kingdoms (57 B.C.-A.D. 668). This period left many books documenting important historical and other data. During that period, Korea introduced papermaking methods to Japan and exported much-acclaimed Korean paper to China.
Interestingly, the great compilation known as the Samgungnyusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms) notes that Koreans enjoyed making and flying kites made of paper, a clear indication that papercraft had already been developed to a considerable extent in Korea by that time.
In the early period of Joseon, under the reign of King Taejo, a decree was proclaimed to emphasize austerity. Accordingly, artificial flowers made of paper replaced virtually all floral decorations at the sites of royal and private banquets and other functions from the beginning of the Joseon era. Artificial flowers most commonly used during the pre-Joseon period of Goryeo were made of wax or silk cloth. During the reign of King Sejong (r.1418-1450), the use of paper flowers, in lieu of other kinds of artificial flowers, was further extended to Buddhist rites and festivals.

As the demand for paper increased rapidly, the royal court of King Sejong established a special office in charge of papermaking, leading to the mass production of paper. During the early period of Joseon, the royal court supplied troops guarding the remote northern frontiers with jigap, armor made of specially treated paper. This armor was not only waterproof, but also effectively protected the soldiers from the severe cold during winter. More importantly, this armor was sturdy enough to serve as a protective covering against arrows, spears, swords, or other weapons. During the period of King Injo, jigap was steadily improved, often using scraps of paper and waste paper as raw materials. Jigap also inspired the invention of civilian attire made of treated paper.

As time passed, paper gained increasingly wider usage. For example, fans made of silk, widely used by Korean nobles, gave way to fans made of paper. In the middle period of Joseon, when tobacco began to be imported, tobacco pouches made of paper appeared and became the vogue. Other paper products made of old books and other used paper also made their debut. Frugality was considered a virtue in daily life. True to this ideal, Koreans came up with many other ways to make good use of scraps of paper. Recycled paper was used as lining for the walls of rooms. Scraps of paper were made into string that was durable enough to be used as a ring (in lieu of a door knob) attached to a door or as a clothesline.

In the early 18th century, Koreans began to produce cushions and mats made by weaving paper cords dyed in various colors. Subsequently, a variety of other household and personal items made of paper cords emerged.

According to Korean folklore, if one collects the hair from one's comb and burns it outside the front door of one's home in the twilight of Lunar New Year's Day, it will ward off diseases and other evils. This folk custom made popular a bag made of oiled paper for keeping this hair. Also popular for the same reason was a comb cabinet.

In most cases, paper made from mulberry bark was used for traditional paper crafts. More specifically, second-hand mulberry paper-calligraphy-practice sheets, scraps left over from bookmaking or papering walls or the pages of old books-was especially favored. Traditional paper that was dyed various colors.

Korea 's traditional papercrafts can be divided into three major categories depending on the way the paper is used and on the shape of the items created. These categories are jido gibeop, jiho gibeop and jiseung gibeop.

In jido gibeop, many sheets of paper are pasted together and then this multilayered, sturdy paper is shaped into a desired form. The products thus made ranged from tobacco pouches and workbaskets to needle cases and comb cabinets. Also in this category are paper products made by pasting many layers of paper on both the outside and inside of a pre-shaped bamboo or wooden frame. Products made through this technique included wardrobes and trunks.

Colored paper was used mainly for such products as wardrobes and trunks used by women. Popular colors included blue, red, yellow, green and purple, all obtained from natural dyestuffs manufactured at home. Often, colored paper was cut into the shape of a butterfly, a bat, a mandarin duck, the double-letter Chinese character meaning happiness, or Buddhist symbols and pasted onto paper products to wish for good luck.

Jiho gibeop is the technique of using "paper clay" to make such kitchen items as bowls with lids and large scooped bowls. Paper clay is made from scraps of paper that are soaked in water and then crushed and mixed with an ample dose of glue.

Jiseung gibeop applies to the technique of making paper cords and weaving them into a broad range of household goods such as baskets, mesh bags, jars and trays. Other popular items made by weaving paper cords included stationery cases, mats, cushions and curtains. Still other paper cord products included quivers, dippers, powder-flasks, footwear, washbasins and chamber pots.

Some paper cord products including small calligraphy desks and trays were reinforced with wooden bars to withstand the weight of the goods placed on them. Jiseung gibeop, which was developed during the Joseon period, is a unique technique that enabled craftsmen to put otherwise useless scraps of paper to good use.

Most of these Korean paper products were properly varnished to enhance their appearance and durability while making them waterproof, since the use of lacquer for varnishing was rather discouraged under government regulations, the most commonly used varnish was sichil, a mixture of unripened persimmon juice, rice glue and perilla oil. Colored papercrafts were often covered by liquified agar and beobyeonyu, a mixture of litharge, talc and alum which were boiled down in perilla oil.

All in all, Korean papercraft has long established itself as an ingenious part of the nation's creative and versatile folk culture.

Folk Paintings

In Korea, the status of folk paintings as part of traditional art was obscure up until the 20th century. Folk painting, or "minhwa," which is not unique to Korea, is typically understood to fall under folk studies rather than art history. Yet, there is a great difference in opinion among Korean scholars concerning the position of folk art in the traditional art world, as well as the scope and definition of the term. In the 1960s, a pioneering Korean scholar by the name of Jo Ja-yong collected folk art works and conducted excavations. Beginning with the "Tiger Exhibition" in 1969, special exhibitions of folk art were held on a regular basis. Around this time, information on folk art began to appear in publications, creating popular interest in the subject.
Since folk paintings are generally ordinary paintings made for a practical purpose, typically no mention is made of the artist's name. At first glance, the paintings seem crude. Yet, they vividly portray the simple beauty of the common people, and express a faith filled with secular aspirations and optimism. With their humor and variegated colors, they capture the honest and natural aesthetic of the Korean people.Since folk paintings are created for a practical purpose, few old examples remain. Yet, folk paintings have a diverse range of subjects, are colorful, concise in expression and treat familiar themes. Notably, since the 1960s, folk painting has begun to influence modern art circles. Folk paintings can be classified, according to content, into a few or as many as 20 or 30 different styles. Distinguishable from general landscape paintings, minhwa landscapes include the typical Eight Scenic Views of the Hwiao and Hwiang Rivers (a theme from China) and Korean landscapes. One can also find folk paintings created to decorate the interiors of rooms. These often depict the flower and bird motif, peonies, tiger-hunting scenes, comical magpie and tiger scenes and genre pictures of farmers working. Other pictures depict scholarly implements or contain inspirational verses _ clear demonstration of the respect for scholarship found in Confucian countries such as Korea.
-snake of the north and the yellow emperor of the center. As time passed, the red peacock was substituted with a phoenix or a mythical animal called the kirin, and the black turtle-snake with a turtle. The 12 zodiacal signs are represented by the mouse, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, rooster, dog and pig.

Tiger: The tiger was among the most popular motifs in Korean folk paintings. Originating probably from the mythical "white tiger" as the guardian spirits of the east, the tiger was often personified in Korean folklore. A notable characteristic of the tiger as featured in Korean folk tradition is that it is seldom portrayed as a ferocious beast but as a friendly animal, sometimes even funny and stupid. The tiger appears as a docile companion and messenger of the mountain spirit in many folk paintings. It often appears with a magpie in a pine tree, a rooster or a lion. The magpie in Korean folkore is an auspicious bird believed to bring good news.
Immortals: As symbols of the Taoist ideal of harmony with nature as a way to achieve eternal life, immortals have been important motifs in the Korean folk tradition over the centuries. Immortals, often portrayed as hermits in the mountains, were also believed to help the mortals to live happily, content with good health, wealth and many children.

The mountain spirit and dragon king: The popular mountain spirit and the dragon king motifs have their origins in two famous figures in Korean history, Dangun and Munmu. Dangun is the progenitor of the Korean people who is said to have turned into a mountain spirit in old age; King Munmu of the Silla Kingdom is said to have become the dragon king after death, and his remains were buried in the East Sea in accordance with his will. The mountain spirit is portrayed in folk paintings as a benevolent old man with a white beard, accompanied by a tiger messenger. The dragon king is usually depicted as a mighty animal flying amidst the clouds over a sea of high waves. The pictures of the mountain spirit and the dragon king motifs are housed at shrines in the mountains or by the sea as the guardians of peace and prosperity of the nation. Also appearing frequently in ancient folk paintings are various other Taoist or shamanistic deities as well as famous kings, generals, ministers or their wives.

2.Buddhist paintings Buddhist temples and hermitages across the country are rich archives of folk paintings, ranging from large icons for ritual use to illustrations for sutras and anecdotes about famous monks and their portraits. These temple paintings are noted for their simple compositions and bright colors.


3. Confucian paintings Confucianism, based on the teachings of Confucius and other sages, has developed in Korea as an important intellectual and moral belief system. It also incorporated the nation's unique shaman and Taoist concepts of ancestor worship and respect for nature. Folk paintings in this category, included character designs of the popular themes of loyalty and filial piety, pictures depicting the life stories of renowned scholars, and a carp jumping up from the river to transform into a dragon, symbolizing the widespread aspiration for distinguished academic achievement and a successful career in officialdom.
4. Decorative paintings A great majority of ancient folk paintings handed down to the present were used for decorative purposes. These paintings generally repeat popular motifs with relatively poor techniques, but attest to the nation's religious tradition harmonizing various faiths such as shamanism, Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism. Ancient Korean folk paintings have the following characteristics: First, the folk paintings show an unequivocal yearning for happiness. They stand for the universal desire to chase away evil spirits and to enjoy a long life blessed with good health, affluence and high social position. Second, folk paintings attest to the honesty and simplicity of the Korean people. The paintings are unrefined, sometimes even childish and crude. Yet they demonstrate the nature of the Korean people, prone to simplicity and unpretentiousness. Third, folk paintings show the deep love Korean's have for nature, humankind and the deities. They are full of humanity, peace and warmth, which can seldom be found in orthodox paintings. Fourth, the folk paintings, with their bold compositions, dynamic brushwork and intense colors, display the indomitable will and courage of an agrarian society braving class warfare and fureign invasions. Fifth, the folk paintings abound with humor and satire. They manifest the considerable mental strength of the Korean people who are able to wisely surmount difficulties. Pains and sorrows are sublimated into joys and happiness with rich humor and satire. Sixth, Korean folk paintings have a unique style which was derived from the indigenous artistic flair of the Korean people.

Shamanism, The Primitive Religion

Shamanism is a primitive religion which does not have a systematic structure but permeates into the daily lives of the people through folklore and customs. Neolithic man in Korea had animistic beliefs that every object in the world possessed a soul.
Man was also believed to have a soul that never dies. So a corpse was laid with its head toward the east in the direction of the sunrise. Neolithic man believed that while good spirits like the sun would bring good luck to human beings, evil spirits would bring misfortune.
Shamanism gradually gave way to Confucianism or Buddhism as a tool for governing the people but its influence lingered on. The shaman, Mudang in Korean, is an intermediary who can link the living with the spiritual world where the dead reside. The shaman is considered capable of averting bad luck, curing sickness and assuring a propitious passage from this world to the next. The shaman is also believed to resolve conflicts and tensions that might exist between the living and the dead.
Korean shamanism includes the worship of thousands of spirits and demons that are believed to dwell in every object in the natural world, including rocks, trees, mountains and streams as well as celestial bodies.
Shamanism in ancient Korea was a religion of fear and superstition, but for modern generations, it remains a colorful and artistic ingredient of their culture. A shamanistic ritual, rich with exorcist elements, presents theatrical elements with music and dance.
The introduction of more sophisticated religions like Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism did not result in the abandonment of shamanistic beliefs and practices. They assimilated elements of shamanistic faith and coexisted peacefully. Shamanism has remained an underlying religion of the Korean people as well as a vital aspect of their culture.
Shamanism is a folk religion centered on a belief in good and evil spirits who can only be influenced by shamans. The shaman is a professional spiritual mediator who performs rites. Mudang, in Korean, usually refers to female shamans, while male shamans are called baksu-mudang.
When shamans dance, they enter a trance, and their souls depart their body for the realm of the spirits. By falling into ecstasy, the shaman communicates directly with the spirits and displays supernatural strength and knowledge as their mouthpiece. The shaman plays the role of an intermediary between human beings and the supernatural, speaking for the humans to deliver their wishes and for the spirits to reveal their will.
The extraordinary gifts of the shaman allows him or her to be naturally distinguished from others in society. The belief that the shaman communicates with the spirits gives that person authority. In ancient societies, probably beginning from the time of tribal states, the shaman assumed the role of a leader as his or her supernatural powers contributed to the common interest of the community. As the possessor of transcendental abilities which were beyond the capacity of ordinary human beings, the shaman may be defined by the following characteristics: First, the shaman has to have experienced the torture of the spirits by resisting being chosen for the vocation, which is manifested in the form of illness. The supernatural abilities of the shaman result from being the choice of the spirits. The illness breaks the resistance of the shaman candidate and the person has to accept the vocation.

Second, the shaman should be capable of officiating at rites in which they are believed to communicate with the spirits. The rites constitute an essential religious expression in shamanism.

Third, the shaman needs to be recognized as a religious leader with the ability to satisfy the spiritual requirements of the community.

Fourth, the shaman has to serve and assist specific spirits. This indicates that the shaman has experienced and accepted specific spirits at the time of initiation.

A great variety of spirits are worshiped in the pantheon of shamans, such as the mountain spirit, the seven star spirit, the earth spirit and the dragon spirit. In addition to these spirits in nature, the shaman may also serve the spirits of renowned historic figures including kings, generals and ministers.

Shamans are divided largely into two types according to their initiation process - those who are chosen by the spirits and those who inherit the vocation from their ancestors.

The shamans who are chosen by the spirits are endowed with supernatural powers to heal and to divine. They communicate with the spirits and speak for them in rites. The costumes used by these possessed shamans vary widely, reaching some 12 to 20 different kinds, representing the various spirits they embody. Percussion instruments are played in fast, exciting rhythms to accompany the shaman as she or he falls into an ecstatic state by dancing.

Without fail shamans of this type experience the so-called sinbyeong, the illness resulting from resisting the call of the spirits, as an unavoidable process of initiation. The shaman candidate usually faints, has visions, and similar symptoms. Then, in a vision or a dream, the spirit who has chosen them appears and announces that they have been selected, a call necessary for shamans to acquire their powers.

The illness will cause the future shaman to suffer for months, or perhaps for years. Shamans say that the illness lasts about eight years on the average, but in some cases, it may last as many as 30 years. It is characterized by an extremely unstable psychological state bordering on lunacy, the person can hardly eat and sometimes roams around in the fields and in the mountains. The illness, which defies modern medicine, disappears suddenly when the person finally gives way to the compulsion and becomes a shaman.

Then an initiation rite is held under the guidance of a senior shaman assuming the role of a godmother or a godfather. The novice shaman learns all the necessary skills of a professional shaman from the senior shaman before practising on his or her own. The apprenticeship lasts for about three years in most cases though it may vary depending on individual talent.

Those who become shamans by inheritance do not possess transcendental powers, and their role is restricted mostly to the performance of rites. The rites they officiate at do not involve ecstasy for communion with the supernatural, and no specific spirits are worshiped. These shamans do not keep altars, and for each rite they set up a sacred passageway for the descending spirits. During a rite, the shaman does not embody the spirits but takes on a separate role.

The hereditary shamans use simple costumes of two or three kinds. But they use more colorful music, including not only percussion but also string and wind instruments as well. Both the music and the dance are much slower than those performed by the "possessed" shamans.

Rites are performed for various purposes in shamanism, a religious phenomenon with deep roots in folk traditions. The rituals are divided largely into those performed for the guardian spirits of the house and the family, those for the tutelary spirits of the community and those for the deities of the universe.

First, the rites are performed frequently to invoke happiness. In ancient times, shaman rites were performed at all levels of society ranging from the royal household down to remote villages. Historical records say that the court of the Goryeo Dynasty set up 10 state shrines to perform rites to invoke peace and prosperity for the nation. Shamans danced and played music at these shrines for national well-being. Private rites were observed by aristocrats and commoners as well to pray for happiness in the family and in the village. These developed into communal rites and festivals in later years.

Second, shaman rites are purported to cure illness. Ancient people believed illness was caused by spirits, which only the shamans could control. They even believed that the houses of the shamans were safe from the spirits causing illness, so, when epidemics spread, they took refuge at their houses.

During these epidemics, the royal court invited shamans to perform rites to expel the evil spirits. At private homes, rites were performed frequently to chase away the smallpox spirit, called mama (lord) or sonnim (guest), both implying that it was an object of fear.

Third, shaman rites are performed to escort the soul of a dead person to heaven. Shaman rites in Korea are intended not only to appease the soul of a deceased person but also to unleash the baleful elements which brought about the death. This allows the soul of the victim to find peace in heaven and to never bring bad fortune to the living. Particularly, deaths from illness or accidents were considered to need the rites in order to guide the wandering and unhappy souls of the dead to heaven.

Shaman rites are classified into three kinds based on their style. The simplest form is offering prayers while rubbing one's palms. Rites of the possessed shamans are characterized by an ecstatic state in which the shaman is deified or embodies the spirits. Rites of the hereditary shamans are also involved in communion with the supernatural, but the shaman and the spirits keep their separate identities.

In the shamanistic world view, human beings have both a body and a soul, or even several souls. The soul, which provides the vital force of life for the body, never perishes. After the body dies, the soul lives forever in the afterworld or is reborn in a new body.

Shamanism classifies souls into those of living persons and those of dead persons. The souls of dead persons are personified, too. These souls are believed to be formless and invisible but omnipotent, floating around freely in the void with no barriers of time or space.

Ssireum, Korean Wrestling

Ssireum, a Korean traditional form of wrestling, is a type of folk competition in which two players, holding on to a satba (a cloth-sash tied around the waist), try to use their strength and various techniques to wrestle each other to the ground.
The history of ssireum began at the same time that communities began to form. In primitive societies, people had to protect themselves against predators, not only for self-defense, but also to obtain food. In addition, it was impossible for these communities to avoid coming into conflict with other tribes. As a result, people ended up practicing different forms of fighting to protect themselves. During this period, when grappling was a predominant method of combat, various wrestling techniques were born.
With the advancement of human intelligence and political and economic development among local communities in Korea, ssireum developed into a military art. It can thus be said that ssireum's elevated status as a military art was a natural outcome of social development.
By the beginning of the Goguryeo Kingdom (37 B.C.-A.D.668), ssireum was already established as a military art. This is substantiated by the murals in the Gakjeochong (Tomb of the Wrestlers), which is believed to have been constructed in the 4th century. Drawn on a stone wall in the main chamber was a vivid scene depicting ssireum. The mural contains a scene showing two men wrestling, with a referee judging the match. The location of the drawing implies that ssireum was a major part of Korean life during that period.
Ssireum's status continued into the Goryeo period (918-1392). A record in Goryeosa (History of Goryeo ) states that in the mid-fourteenth century King Chunghye ordered soldiers to compete in ssireum and observed the match during a banquet. It was during the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), however, that ssireum gained increasingly widespread popularity.
Evidence of this is depicted in the genre pictures of Kim Hongdo, which frequently featured scenes of ssireum competitions; it is clear that by the Joseon era ssireum had become well-known as a folk competition in addition to being a military art.
Virtually every nation has seasonal folk celebrations that contain the unique characteristics of that country, and Korea is no exception in this regard. Ssireum contests, which could be held virtually anywhere or at anytime, were a frequent part of the various celebrations held throughout the year. Many ssireum competitions occurred during Dano (the May Festival), but also during other holidays as well. On holidays such as the 3rd day of the Third Moon, the 8th day of the Fourth Moon, Buddhist All Souls' Day, the 15th of the Seventh Moon or the Harvest Moon Festival during the Eighth Moon, townsfolk gathered to compete in ssireum matches as a way of sharing their joy and releasing mental and physical tensions from strenuous farming work that lasted from spring until fall.
The surrounding atmosphere became festive with the beginning of ssireum matches. On days when ssireum matches were held, gambling games such as yut (a four-stick game like parcheesi) and various card games, which were ordinarily prohibited, were allowed. Upon demonstration of a fine ssireum technique or announcement of the winner, the people would raise a shout of joy, and nongaknori (farmers' music and dances) were performed.
Ssireum is performed on a ssireumpan, which refers to the grounds where ssireum matches are held. While the rise of ssireum as a modern sport has meant that a ssireumpan is now prepared according to specific rules, there were no strict ssireumpan regulations in traditional folk competitions. A traditional ssireumpan was ordinarily prepared in a yard where many people could congregate, such as a large yard either outside a village entrance, where a zelkova tree could function as a pavilion, or inside the town. Preparation consisted simply of pouring sand in a circle over the ssireum ground. Posts were put up in four corners, and gold-colored strips were wrapped around the posts to prevent people from coming inside the ring. The reason for covering the ssireumpan with sand was to protect the wrestlers from injuries when they fell.. Ssireum practitioners were called ssireumkkun. Among ssireumkkun, there were quite a few professionals who toured around the country for ssireum matches, and the better competitors obtained nationwide fame. It was considered quite an honor to be a ssireumkkun, and the ability to compete with one's strength and ability in a ssireum match in the presence of congregated spectators was itself something to boast about.

The final winner of the ssireum tournament was customarily awarded an oxen, which was not only a symbol of strength, but also a valuable asset in an agricultural society. Because farming was primarily accomplished by an oxen's strength at that time, it was a most meaningful and generous award in every respect.

In Korea today, ssireum has emerged as a popular sport, rather than a mere traditional folk competition practiced only on holidays. Its popularity is such that matches are broadcast on television.

Ssireum matches include group and individual matches. The competition schedule is determined by a drawing in the presence of the individual team's representative, while victory is determined by a player or a group's winning two out of three rounds of the match. Nonetheless, only one match determines a victory, depending on the circumstances of the match. The decision is made by the executive official after gathering opinions from the officials of the competition committee.

The satba has to be worn in a way such that a loop encircles the right leg and long waist strip is flexible enough not to be a hindrance during the match. The juncture between the strip and the loop has to be along the central line of the right thigh. Prior to the match, the two players bow toward each other and the judge's stage, then sit down to grab the satba. Such etiquette stems from respect for the ways of ssireum. The two competitors kneel down on the floor, keeping a ten to thirty centimeter distance between their legs. They then lean their shoulder into each other simultaneously and grasp the satba. At that point, the player cannot step back with his right leg. Also, the satba cannot be held at a point beyond the mid-point of the right thigh or the waist. Upon completion of grasping the satba, the match begins with the signal of the referee.

When the satba is released by one of the players or a player is pushed outside the ring, a rematch is ordered. However, if one is pushed out intentionally or one hinders the opponent's holding the satba, a warning can be issued as a penalty. Two warnings become a citation; two citations result in the loss of a match; three citations result in the disqualification of a player. To enhance the player's spirit for the fight and to encourage him to perform his best, judging is determined by two wins out of three matches.

The time limit for the match differs according to category, which includes elementary, middle school, and high school and above (including college and general public). A match for the elementary and middle school categories is set for two minutes. If there is no winner, a two-minute extended round is held after one minute of rest. For matches in high school and higher categories, matches last for three minutes. If a winner is not decided, an extended match is held after a minute of rest.

Upon exhaustion of the second match time limit when the first match's winner has already been determined, the winner from the first match becomes the winner of the competition. If there is no winner during the first match, the winner from the second match wins. When the score after the first two rounds is 1-1 and a winner is not decided in the third round match due to expiration of the designated time limit, a player who has received a warning or citation loses the competition. If neither of the players has received a warning or citation, the lighter player becomes the winner.

During the match, a player who touches the ground with any part of the body above the knee or steps out of the ring is defeated. If a player purposefully pushes his opponent outside the ring or steps outside due to his own mistake, a warning is given. However, when the match is completed outside the ring as a result of a player's natural progression in a ssireum move, the player whose move determined the end of the match becomes the winner. Squeezing the neck, hitting with the head, twisting the arms, kicking with the foot, punching with a fist, covering the eyes, and other actions that hinder the opponent's performance are grounds for disqualification.

The judging panel consists of one chief referee and three sub-referees. In addition to judging the match, they are also responsible for administration of issues pertinent to match. The chief referee moves in and out of the ring and is expected to announce his judgments in a speedy and accurate fashion. Sub-referees are positioned outside the ring, one on the left and the other on the right. To ensure the fairness of the chief referee's decisions, sub-referees observe the match thoroughly. If an unfair judgment is announced or the chief referee is unable to make a decision upon completion of a match, they can request a revocation of the decision or a rematch. Sub-referees can also recommend the immediate cessation of the match when injury is likely to be incurred by a player due to the match itself or outside conditions.

When progression of a match becomes impossible because of an accident during the match, a winner is determined by an agreement made between the chief and sub-referees. Absolute respect for the referees' authority is expected from the athletes, and they cannot challenge any judgments announced by either the chief referee or one agreed upon by both the chief and sub-referees. When a challenge is raised by a sub-referee in regard to the chief referee's decision, or when judging by the chief referee alone becomes difficult, the sub-referee's opinions are incorporated into a final decision.

The chief referee announces the beginning and ending of a match or the decision of a victory using a whistle. If any situation arises during the match that is likely to cause a player's injury or the satba is not held onto tightly, the chief referee may stop the match momentarily, signaling for the match to continue when the correction is made.

If a player does not appear in the ring after having been called three times by the chief referee, the player defaults the match. Any player who violates the regulations of the match, uses violence, foul language, or demonstrates any improper behavior during the match can be immediately ordered to stop such behavior or be disqualified.

For effective resolution of the issues related to the match, a penalty committee implements the decision made by the judging panel in relation to any incident that occurred or upon request for suspensions by various committees. If any unqualified player is found to be participating in the match, the player and the group that the player is affiliated with are disqualified. All results attained by that particular individual and the group are nullified, and a suspension notice is given out according to regulations set forth by the penalty committee.

With the development of consistent rules and guidelines, ssireum has continued to progress from a traditional sport and self-defense method into a well-loved folk competition and popular modern sport that is a part of the lives of Koreans today.